The Syrian Refugee Crisis

(Link to a version of this with footnotes and links, pp. 17-27 here)

Animated Infographic - Refugee Flow Towards Europe

“Refugees have been deprived of their homes, but they must not be deprived of their futures.”

Introduction

The Syrian Civil war has resulted in the largest refugee crises the world has seen since World War II. Since the beginning of the protests stemming from the Arab Spring in March 2011, over three million Syrians have fled the country, while another 6.5 million have been internally displaced. Although internally displaced persons (IDPs) do not fall under the original mandate of the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), it has expanded the scope of its work to address the protection needs of IDPs as well as best able. UNHCR encounters difficulties when helping IDPs, who remain under the authority of their state, which is why, despite their best efforts, often refugees are the beneficiaries of UNHCR’s efforts. The involvement of UNHCR in Syria has been the agency’s largest operation yet.

The Syrian refugee crisis has grave implications in the region, since most of the three million people who have crossed Syria’s borders are now dispersed throughout neighboring countries. The situation has become a particular burden for the five main host countries, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey, as hosting Syrian refugees has overstretched their infrastructures and budgets. The living conditions of Syrian refugees are often poor, as 16% of them live in camps, while the remaining 84% live primarily in urban areas, where they are more vulnerable to arrest, exploitation and do not have access to or resources for food and housing. As the High Commissioner for Refugees, António Guterres, noted “Syria has become the great tragedy of this century – a disgraceful humanitarian calamity with suffering and displacement unparalleled in recent history.”

International and Regional Framework

Although the Syrian refugee crisis is a recent development, there have been international and regional legal instruments framing the issues surrounding the crisis for decades. Since its adoption in 1951, the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees has been the main framework for such matters. It defines a “refugee” as anyone who:

“Owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having the nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.”

Syrian refugees fall under this definition, as they have fled from the civil war that worsened over the past several years. Moreover, the lack of resolution to this conflict makes them unable or unwilling to return to their country. Whereas the Convention is applicable to Syrian refugees, it should be noted that Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon are not parties to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951).

The definition for refugees does not pertain to IDPs, who account for 6.5 million Syrians. Intervention on IDP issues is regulated by the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, adopted in 1998. IDPs have a different status, defined as “persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border.” As civilians, IDPs have protected rights under international humanitarian law, namely the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Additional Protocols of 1977. However, in an effort to clarify several aspects of the IDPs’ status and to draw attention to their particular needs, the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (1998) were drafted as a way to locate IDPs at the intersection between international humanitarian law, human rights law, and refugee law.

On a regional level, the referential document pertaining to this topic is the revised Arab Charter on Human Rights, adopted in 2004 by the members of the League of Arab States. In an effort to address the criticism it faced and to improve the implementation of the Charter, its 45th article created the Arab Human Rights Committee. The Charter promotes individual, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, as well as rules of justice. Although the Charter is applicable in the region pertaining to this topic, there still lacks an enforcement and accountability mechanism.

Role of the International System

Within the United Nations (UN) system, UNHCR is the lead agency responding to the Syrian refugee crisis. Originally present in Syria to monitor the arrival of Iraqi refugees in the 1990s, since 2012, UNHCR has taken on a leading role in assisting Syrian IDPs as well. Their operations in the field cover non-food items (NFIs), shelter, health, cash assistance, and protection among other forms of aid.

UNHCR works with other international actors under an inter-agency framework in an effort to strengthen the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance. The 2014 Syrian Arab Republic Humanitarian Assistance Response Plan (SHARP), comprised of UN agencies, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), assists 9.3 million people in need with a sought budget of $2.27 billion. They oversee 112 projects to complete five main objectives. More precisely, they work towards the protection of civilians, the provision of emergency services and relief supplies, the restoration of livelihoods, the capacity of humanitarian actors, and future preparedness. Within this framework, UNHCR focuses particularly on camp coordination and camp management, protection, and shelter.

In order to assist Syrian refugees fleeing their country, the Syria Regional Response Plan (RRP) brings together 108 UN agencies, IOM, and NGOs. More specifically, the RRP targets refugees living both inside and outside of camps as well as the communities hosting them. Through this plan, about three million people of concern will be assisted in several ways, including camp management, health, nutrition, cash assistance, and child protection, to name a few.

In December 2013, the UN General Assembly adopted resolution 68/180 on “Protection of and assistance to internally displaced persons” and Resolution 68/182, relating to the “Situation of human rights in the Syrian Arab Republic.” The latter stated that the General Assembly was concerned by the increasing numbers of refugees due to the conflict in Syria, and further urged UNHCR and other donors to support Syrian refugees and the host countries. Additionally, in February 2014, the UN Security Council adopted resolution 2139 (2014) on the “Middle East,” in which it urged “all Member States, based on burden-sharing principles, to support the neighboring host countries to enable them to respond to the growing humanitarian needs.” This resolution is of utmost significance, as it represented a necessary step to support civilians and host countries, as well as a renewed commitment from the Security Council.

In addition to the UN system and its agencies, international and national NGOs have played an important role in the Syrian refugee crisis. With an extensive grass-roots network and knowledge of local communities, they represent a considerable partner for UNHCR. Among these organizations, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has unlocked a budget of $157 million in order to provide humanitarian assistance for both IDPs and Syrian Refugees. The Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) focuses mostly on shelter, education, sanitation and hygiene. In 2013, the NRC constructed or rehabilitated 249 housing units and 91 classrooms, as well as 101 latrines and 200 water points. Other NGOs partnered with UNHCR to provide aid to refugees include Save the Children, Oxfam America, Relief International and the International Rescue Committee.

Urban Settings

Refugees living in urban areas have better opportunities than those living in camps, as they can retain a certain degree of anonymity and earn money on their own. To better address their needs, from documentation to material needs, UNHCR published their “Policy on refugee protection and solutions in urban areas” in 2009, laying down a new approach to the issue. The objective of this policy is two-fold: First, “[t]o ensure that cities are recognized as legitimate places for refugees to reside and exercise the rights to which they are entitled,” and second, “to maximize the protection space available to urban refugees and the humanitarian organizations that support them.” Through the 2014 Syria Regional Response Plan, UNHCR assists urban refugees with a wide variety of measures, including assistance in the areas of education, livelihoods, and shelter.

Education  

As of June 2014, 358,899 Syrian refugee children were enrolled in primary or secondary school, comprising over 50% of the planned target of the RRP. Despite improvements made on the education front, many challenges remain and differ depending on the host country. In Egypt, some difficulties stem from the different dialect of the Egyptian school system to which Syrian children struggle to adapt. Moreover, some parents of school-aged Syrians are reluctant to enroll them, for fear of sexual and other harassment or discrimination both in school and on their way to school. Jordan has the highest number of Syrian refugee children enrolled in formal education, with 120,555 of them attending school. As a result, the capacity and space of the Jordan school system is overstretched, which constitutes a major obstacle to the education of both Syrian and Jordan children. Among the policies employed to face these challenges, the “No Lost Generation” strategy implemented by the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) has three main objectives: Increasing learning and skills, providing a protective environment and broadening opportunities for children and adolescents. In this regard, issues that will need to be addressed by delegates include augmenting the capacity of the school system in host countries, implementing strategies in order to help Syrian children adapting to different dialects, and providing more protection from sexual discrimination.

Livelihoods

In order to provide for themselves, Syrian refugees need to have access to the labor market in their host country. Unfortunately, in some cases, their refugee status does not allow them to work legally or at least make it more difficult for them to find employment. This is particularly true in Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon, since none of them are parties to the Convention relating to the status of Refugees (1951). In Iraq, for example, Syrian refugees are allowed to work legally so far as they have a residency permit, but acquiring such document can prove to be a challenge in itself. Indeed, residency permits are not provided anymore in non-camp settings since April 2013. While the RRP has led several initiatives for employment assistance or business development projects, other challenges need to be addressed with attention paid to long-term solutions. These additional areas of concern include “the remoteness of locations where refugees reside, language skills, tools, capita and increasing intolerance towards Syrian refugees.”

Shelter

Syrian refugees living outside of camps have several options when it comes to housing. Some of them choose to rent homes or apartments, but this raises difficulties on an economic level, as this option necessitates the payment of a monthly fee. In order to provide refugees with shelter assistance, the UNHCR implemented several strategies, including cash for rent, shelter kits, and weatherproofing. When they cannot afford this type of housing, Syrian refugees have to resort to living in collective centers or unfinished buildings, where they may sacrifice their privacy and safety. This situation is particularly alarming in Lebanon, as this hosting country does not have any camps, and thus all Syrian refugees are burdened with the responsibility of finding appropriate shelter. Aware of the particularity of this situation, the RRP has implemented a strategy comprised of three objectives: “providing safe and dignified emergency shelter to newly arriving households; improving substandard shelters and maintaining the shelter conditions of vulnerable households; and, upgrading properties belonging to Lebanese host families, thus enabling them to benefit from structural improvements in the long-term.”

Camp Settings 

The number of Syrian refugees living in camps accounts for 16 percent of the three million living in neighboring countries. However, the proportions of refugees living in camps versus those living elsewhere differs among the host countries, with 36 percent in camps in Iraq, 35 percent in Turkey, and 18 percent in Jordan, while Lebanon and Egypt only rely on non-camp settings. Some of the challenges faced by Syrians living in refugee camps include health, nutrition, water, sanitation, and hygiene.

Health and Nutrition

The health and nutrition-related problems refugees usually encounter in camps include communicable and noncommunicable diseases, malnutrition, low immunization coverage, mental illness, and a lack of access to reproductive health care. The situation differs depending on the country hosting the camp as primary health care is granted by national health systems in Iraq and Turkey, and by the RRP in Jordan. Therefore, the challenges and priorities differ as well. In Iraq, for instance, the limitation in financial and human resources represent the main obstacles to potentially impact the health and nutrition sector. However, certain policies and objectives are common to these three countries, such as to “improve equitable access, quality and coverage to comprehensive primary health care for Syrian refugee women, girls, boys and men” and “support the capacity of the national health care system to provide health and nutrition services.”

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

The challenges met with water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) stem from pre-existing problems in the host countries, namely water shortages due partly to extreme climate, and inadequate water and waste treatment. These shortcomings may have negative effects on various sectors such as food production and livestock, with the potential to ultimately decrease informal employment in the abovementioned sectors. In Jordan, camps are faced with added challenges arising from an increase in water-demanding devices, and the cost of water trucking and desludging. In Iraqi camps, some of the measures undertaken to improve WASH are implemented through “community mobilization to facilitate greater ownership of resources.”

Sexual and Gender-Based Violence

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is a threat shared by both refugees and IDPs and is therefore an issue of utmost importance to UNHCR, as illustrated in the agency’s publication, “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons – Guidelines for Prevention and Response.” In the aforementioned document, UNHCR gives the following definition for SGBV: “violations of fundamental human rights that perpetuate sex-stereotyped roles that deny human dignity and the self-determination of the individual and hamper human development,” and “physical, sexual and psychological harm that reinforces female subordination and perpetuates male power and control.”

The 2014 SHARP has undertaken several activities in order to respond to SGBV in Syria, including but not limited to, awareness-raising, psychosocial support, legal and cash assistance, as well as emergency medical care. However, these programs encounter barriers as family restrictions which do not allow women to access the existing assistance. Moreover, societal norms condoning certain sexual and gender-based violence such as forced early marriage have become more prominent, leading to a recrudescence of this form of SGBV.

If Syrian refugees face similar challenges to IDPs, their situation is aggravated by their living conditions. Indeed, both camps and urban areas are faced with SGBV stemming from “insecurity, limited livelihood opportunities, lack of access to formal and non-formal education opportunities, lack of access to housing and the lenient application of national legal frameworks.” While the Syrian refugee crisis has exacerbated the risks of SGBV, it also provides a unique opportunity, as “displacement can enable women to take on new roles and instigate positive change”. Indeed, refugee women often have to provide for their children, and thus endorse a new economic responsibility differing from more traditional roles.

Conclusion

Millions of displaced Syrians are struggling, either within the Syrian borders or in neighboring countries, and rely on the help of UNHCR. With increased instances of conflict in Syria, the number of refugees continues to grow, causing an increase in budget needs as well. More than a domestic issue, the entire region is affected by the Syrian refugee crisis as the strain on resources is felt in hosting countries. Indeed, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey are home to three million Syrian refugees, putting a strain on the governments and populations of these states. Delegates will have to address a wide variety of issues in order to improve the living conditions of Syrian refugees living both in urban and camp settings.

Further Research

Delegates are presented here with an unprecedented humanitarian crisis. In an effort to improve the living conditions of Syrian refugees, the following questions should be considered: How can UNHCR facilitate access to their services for urban refugees? What mechanisms of participation can be implemented for a better integration of refugees in the camp settings? How can SGBV be addressed in different sectors, and how can these efforts be coordinated? What further partnership can UNHCR build with host countries to alleviate their burden? While many challenges are to be addressed, it needs to be reminded that a political solution to the ongoing conflict in Syria is not to be found within this committee.

Source for map and animated short film, above: http://www.theguardian.com/world/middle-east-live/2013/jul/25/syria-refugee-crisis-a-day-in-the-life